Digital advertising is now the leading form of advertising in most if not all OECD countries and offers businesses the ability to reach consumers in ways that could only have been imagined previously. Increased Internet coverage and mobile phone penetration have fundamentally changed the ability of advertisers to reach a broad range of consumers at almost any time of the day and in any context through digital advertising. In addition, developments in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, coupled with the stores of personal data available online, have allowed for cost-effective targeted advertising at scale. Such advertising is traded electronically in real-time across a complex supply chain, sometimes involving numerous actors. Recent market studies by various competition authorities have highlighted potential competition concerns in digital advertising markets. In particular, there appears to be increasing market concentration and integration across many levels of the supply chain. While some consolidation may reflect underlying network effects and economies of scale in these markets, previous mergers may have exacerbated this. Further, there are concerns that some players have achieved dominance by behaving contrary to competition laws. In November 2020, the OECD held a roundtable on these issues to:
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